Following the Buddha's Footsteps
Instilling Goodness School
City of Ten Thousand Buddhas
Talmage, CA 95481
 INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHISMAs a child, Siddhartha the Buddha, was troubled by some of the same thoughts that children today have. They wonder about birth and death. They wonder why they get sick and why grandfather died. They wonder why their wishes do not come true. Children also wonder about happiness and the beauty in nature.
Because the Buddha knew what was in the hearts of children and human kind, he taught everyone how to live a happy and peaceful life. Buddhism is not learning about strange beliefs from faraway lands. It is about looking at and thinking about our own lives. It shows us how to understand ourselves and how to cope with our daily problems.
UNIT 1
THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA
Life in the PalaceBuddhism is one of the major religions in the world. It began around 2,500 years ago in India when Siddhartha Gautama discovered how to bring happiness into the world. He was born around 566 BC, in the small kingdom of Kapilavastu. His father was King Suddhodana and his mother was Queen Maya.
Soon after Prince Siddhartha was born, the wise men predicted that he would become a Buddha. When the king heard this, he was deeply disturbed, for he wanted his son to become a mighty ruler. He told Queen Maya, "I will make life in the palace so pleasant that our son will never want to leave."
At the age of sixteen, Prince Siddhartha married a beautiful princess, Yasodhara. The king built them three palaces, one for each season, and lavished them with luxuries. They passed their days in enjoyment and never thought about life outside the palace.
The Four SightsSoon Siddhartha became disillusioned with the palace life and wanted to see the outside world. He made four trips outside the palace and saw four things that changed his life. On the first three trips, he saw sickness, old age and death. He asked himself, "How can I enjoy a life of pleasure when there is so much suffering in the world?"
On his fourth trip, he saw a wandering monk who had given up everything he owned to seek an end to suffering. "I shall be like him." Siddhartha thought.
RenunciationLeaving his kingdom and loved ones behind, Siddhartha became a wandering monk. He cut off his hair to show that he had renounced the worldly lifestyle and called himself Gautama. He wore ragged robes and wandered from place to place. In his search for truth, he studied with the wisest teachers of his day. None of them knew how to end suffering, so he continued the search on his own.
For six years he practiced severe asceticism thinking this would lead him to enlightenment. He sat in meditation and ate only roots, leaves and fruit. At times he ate nothing. He could endure more hardships than anyone else, but this did not take him anywhere. He thought, "Neither my life of luxury in the palace nor my life as an ascetic in the forest is the way to freedom. Overdoing things can not lead to happiness. " He began to eat nourishing food again and regained his strength.
EnlightenmentOn a full-moon day in May, he sat under the Bodhi tree in deep meditation and said. "I will not leave this spot until I find an end to suffering." During the night, he was visited by Mara, the evil one, who tried to tempt him away from his virtuous path. First he sent his beautiful daughters to lure Gautama into pleasure. Next he sent bolts of lightning, wind and heavy rain. Last he sent his demonic armies with weapons and flaming rocks. One by one, Gautama met the armies and defeated them with his virtue.
As the struggle ended, he realized the cause of suffering and how to remove it. He had gained the most supreme wisdom and understood things as they truly are. He became the Buddha, 'The Awakened One'. From then on, he was called Shakyamuni Buddha.
The Buddha TeachesAfter his enlightenment, he went to the Deer Park near the holy city of Benares and shared his new understanding with five holy men. They understood immediately and became his disciples. This marked the beginning of the Buddhist community.
For the next forty-five years, the Buddha and his disciples went from place to place in India spreading the Dharma, his teachings. Their compassion knew no bounds, they helped everyone along the way, beggars, kings and slave girls. At night, they would sleep where they were; when hungry they would ask for a little food.
Whenever the Buddha went, he won the hearts of the people because he dealt with their true feelings. He advised them not to accept his words on blind faith, but to decide for themselves whether his teachings are right or wrong, then follow them. He encouraged everyone to have compassion for each other and develop their own virtue, "You should do your own work, for I can teach only the way."
He never became angry or impatient or spoke harshly to anyone, not even to those who opposed him. He always taught in such a way that everyone could understand. Each person thought the Buddha was speaking especially for him. The Buddha told his followers to help each other on the Way. Following is a story of the Buddha living as an example to his disciples.
Once the Buddha and Ananda visited a monastery where a monk was suffering from a contagious disease. The poor man lay in a mess with no one looking after him. The Buddha himself washed the sick monk and placed him on a new bed. Afterwards, he admonished the other monks. "Monks, you have neither mother nor father to look after you. If you do not look after each other, who will look after you? Whoever serves the sick and suffering, serves me."
                                                                        The Last Years
Shakyamuni Buddha passed away around 486 BC at the age of eighty. Although he has left the world, the spirit of his kindness and compassion remains.
The Buddha realized that that he was not the first to become a Buddha. "There have been many Buddhas before me and will be many Buddhas in the future," The Buddha recalled to his disciples. "All living beings have the Buddha nature and can become Buddhas." For this reason, he taught the way to Buddhahood.
The two main goals of Buddhism are getting to know ourselves and learning the Buddha's teachings. To know who we are, we need to understand that we have two natures. One is called our ordinary nature, which is made up of unpleasant feelings such as fear, anger, and jealousy. The other is our true nature, the part of us that is pure, wise, and perfect. In Buddhism, it is called the Buddha nature. The only difference between us and the Buddha is that we have not awakened to our true nature.
Unit 2
BASIC TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHAChapter 1
THE THREE UNIVERSAL TRUTHSOne day, the Buddha sat down in the shade of a tree and noticed how beautiful the countryside was. Flowers were blooming and trees were putting on bright new leaves, but among all this beauty, he saw much unhappiness. A farmer beat his ox in the field. A bird pecked at an earthworm, and then an eagle swooped down on the bird. Deeply troubled, he asked, "Why does the farmer beat his ox? Why must one creature eat another to live?"
During his enlightenment, the Buddha found the answer to these questions. He discovered three great truths. He explained these truths in a simple way so that everyone could understand them.
1. Nothing is lost in the universe
The first truth is that nothing is lost in the universe. Matter turns into energy, energy turns into matter. A dead leaf turns into soil. A seed sprouts and becomes a new plant. Old solar systems disintegrate and turn into cosmic rays. We are born of our parents, our children are born of us.
We are the same as plants, as trees, as other people, as the rain that falls. We consist of that which is around us, we are the same as everything. If we destroy something around us, we destroy ourselves. If we cheat another, we cheat ourselves. Understanding this truth, the Buddha and his disciples never killed any animal.
2. Everything Changes
The second universal truth of the Buddha is that everything is continuously changing. Life is like a river flowing on and on, ever-changing. Sometimes it flows slowly and sometimes swiftly. It is smooth and gentle in some places, but later on snags and rocks crop up out of nowhere. As soon as we think we are safe, something unexpected happens.
Once dinosaurs, mammoths, and saber-toothed tigers roamed this earth. They all died out, yet this was not the end of life. Other life forms like smaller mammals appeared, and eventually humans, too. Now we can even see the Earth from space and understand the changes that have taken place on this planet. Our ideas about life also change. People once believed that the world was flat, but now we know that it is round.
3. Law of Cause and Effect
The third universal truth explained by the Buddha is that there is continuous changes due to the law of cause and effect. This is the same law of cause and effect found in every modern science textbook. In this way, science and Buddhism are alike.
The law of cause and effect is known as karma. Nothing ever happens to us unless we deserves it. We receive exactly what we earn, whether it is good or bad. We are the way we are now due to the things we have done in the past. Our thoughts and actions determine the kind of life we can have. If we do good things, in the future good things will happen to us. If we do bad things, in the future bad things will happen to us. Every moment we create new karma by what we say, do, and think. If we understand this, we do not need to fear karma. It becomes our friend. It teaches us to create a bright future.
The Buddha said,
"The kind of seed sown
 will produce that kind of fruit.
 Those who do good will reap good results.
 Those who do evil will reap evil results.
 If you carefully plant a good seed,
 You will joyfully gather good fruit."
                                    Dhammapada
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Chapter 2
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHSOnce there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose first-born son died. She was so stricken with grief that she roamed the streets carrying the dead body and asking for help to bring her son back to life. A kind and wise man took her to the Buddha.
The Buddha told her, "Fetch me a handful of mustard seeds and I will bring your child back to life." Joyfully Kisagotami started off to get them. Then the Buddha added, "But the seeds must come from a family that has not known death."
Kisagotami went from door to door in the whole village asking for the mustard seeds, but everyone said, "Oh, there have been many deaths here", "I lost my father", I lost my sister". She could not find a single household that had not been visited by death. Finally Kisagotami returned to the Buddha and said, "There is death in every family. Everyone dies. Now I understand your teaching."
The Buddha said, "No one can escape death and unhappiness. If people expect only happiness in life, they will be disappointed."
Things are not always the way we want them to be, but we can learn to understand them. When we get sick, we go to a doctor and ask:

• What's wrong with me?
• Why am I sick?
• What will cure me?
• What do I have to do get well?

The Buddha is like a good doctor. First a good doctor diagnoses the illness. Next he finds out what has caused it. Then he decides what the cure is. Finally he prescribes the medicine or gives the treatment that will make the patient well again.
The Four Noble Truths1. There is Suffering Suffering is common to all.
2. Cause of Suffering We are the cause of our suffering.
3. End of Suffering Stop doing what causes suffering.
4. Path to end Suffering Everyone can be enlightened.
 1. Suffering: Everyone suffers from these thing
    Birth- When we are born, we cry.
    Sickness- When we are sick, we are miserable.
    Old age- When old, we will have ache and pains and find it hard to get around.
    Death- None of us wants to die. We feel deep sorrow when someone dies.
Other things we suffer from are:
    Being with those we dislike,
    Being apart from those we love,
    Not getting what we want,
   All kinds of problems and disappointments that are unavoidable.
 
 

The Buddha did not deny that there is happiness in life, but he pointed out it does not last forever. Eventually everyone meets with some kind of suffering. He said:
"There is happiness in life,
happiness in friendship,
happiness of a family,
happiness in a healthy body and mind,
...but when one loses them, there is suffering."
                                              Dhammapada
2. The cause of suffering
The Buddha explained that people live in a sea of suffering because of ignorance and greed. They are ignorant of the law of karma and are greedy for the wrong kind of pleasures. They do things that are harmful to their bodies and peace of mind, so they can not be satisfied or enjoy life.
For example, once children have had a taste of candy, they want more. When they can't have it, they get upset. Even if children get all the candy they want, they soon get tired of it and want something else. Although, they get a stomach-ache from eating too much candy, they still want more. The things people want most cause them the most suffering. Of course, there are basic things that all people should have, like adequate food, shelter, and clothing. Everyone deserve a good home, loving parents, and good friends. They should enjoy life and cherish their possessions without becoming greedy.
3. The end of suffering
To end suffering, one must cut off greed and ignorance. This means changing one's views and living in a more natural and peaceful way. It is like blowing out a candle. The flame of suffering is put out for good. Buddhists call the state in which all suffering is ended Nirvana. Nirvana is an everlasting state of great joy and peace. The Buddha said, "The extinction of desire is Nirvana." This is the ultimate goal in Buddhism. Everyone can realize it with the help of the Buddha's teachings. It can be experienced in this very life.
4. The path to the end of suffering: The path to end suffering is known as the Noble Eightfold Path. It is also known as the Middle Way.
Chapter 3
THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATHWhen the Buddha gave his first sermon in the Deer Park, he began the 'Turning of the Dharma Wheel'. He chose the beautiful symbol of the wheel with its eight spokes to represent the Noble Eightfold Path. The Buddha's teaching goes round and round like a great wheel that never stops, leading to the central point of the wheel, the only point which is fixed, Nirvana. The eight spokes on the wheel represent the eight parts of the Noble Eightfold Path. Just as every spoke is needed for the wheel to keep turning, we need to follow each step of the path.

1. Right View. The right way to think about life is to see the world through the eyes of the Buddha--with wisdom and compassion.
2. Right Thought. We are what we think. Clear and kind thoughts build good, strong characters.
3. Right Speech. By speaking kind and helpful words, we are respected and trusted by everyone.
4. Right Conduct. No matter what we say, others know us from the way we behave. Before we criticize others, we should first see what we do ourselves.
5. Right Livelihood. This means choosing a job that does not hurt others. The Buddha said, "Do not earn your living by harming others. Do not seek happiness by making others unhappy."
6. Right Effort. A worthwhile life means doing our best at all times and having good will toward others. This also means not wasting effort on things that harm ourselves and others.
7. Right Mindfulness. This means being aware of our thoughts, words, and deeds.
8. Right Concentration. Focus on one thought or object at a time. By doing this, we can be quiet and attain true peace of mind.
Following the Noble Eightfold Path can be compared to cultivating a garden, but in Buddhism one cultivates one's wisdom. The mind is the ground and thoughts are seeds. Deeds are ways one cares for the garden. Our faults are weeds. Pulling them out is like weeding a garden. The harvest is real and lasting happiness.
 
 
UNIT 3
FOLLOWING THE BUDDHA'S TEACHINGSThe Buddha spoke the Four Noble Truths and many other teachings, but at the heart they all stress the same thing. An ancient story explains this well.

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Once a very old king went to see an old hermit who lived in a bird's nest in the top of a tree, "What is the most important Buddhist teaching?" The hermit answered, "Do no evil, do only good. Purify your heart." The king had expected to hear a very long explanation. He protested, "But even a five-year old child can understand that!" "Yes," replied the wise sage, "but even an 80-year-old man cannot do it."
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Chapter 1
THE TRIPLE JEWELThe Buddha knew it would be difficult for people to follow his teachings on their own, so he established the Three Refuges for them to rely on. If a person wants to become Buddhists take refuge in and rely on the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. These are known as the Triple Jewel. The Sangha are the monks and nuns. They live in monasteries and carry on the Buddha's teaching. The word Sangha means 'harmonious community'. The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha together possess qualities that are precious like jewels and can lead one to enlightenment.
A refuge is a place to go for safety and protection, like a shelter in a storm. Taking refuge does not mean running away from life. It means living life in a fuller, truer way.
Taking refuge is also like a man traveling for the first time to a distant city. He will need a guide to show him which path to follow and some traveling companions to help him along the way.

• The Buddha is the guide.
• The Dharma is the path.
• The Sangha are the teachers or companions along the way.

There is a special ceremony for taking refuge with the Triple Jewel. With a sincere mind, one recites the following verse in front of an ordained monk or nun.I go to the Buddha for refuge.
I go to the Dharma for refuge.
I go to the Sangha for refuge.
For a Buddhist, taking refuge is the first step on the path to enlightenment. Even if enlightenment is not achieved in this life, one has a better chance to become enlightened in a future life. One who take the precepts is called a lay person.
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Chapter 2
THE FIVE PRECEPTSAll religions have some basic rules that define what is good conduct and what kind of conduct should be avoided. In Buddhism, the most important rules are the Five Precepts. These have been passed down from the Buddha himself.

1. No killing                              Respect for life
2. No stealing                            Respect for others' property
3. No sexual misconduct           Respect for our pure nature
4. No lying                                Respect for honesty
5. No intoxicants                       Respect for a clear mind
                                                                                        No killing
The Buddha said, "Life is dear to all beings. They have the right to live the same as we do." We should respect all life and not kill anything. Killing ants and mosquitoes is also breaking this precept. We should have an attitude of loving-kindness towards all beings, wishing them to be happy and free from harm. Taking care of the earth, its rivers and air is included. One way that many Buddhists follow this precept is by being vegetarian.
No stealingIf we steal from another, we steal from ourselves. Instead, we should learn to give and take care of things that belong to our family, to the school, or to the public.
No sexual misconductProper conduct shows respect for oneself and others. Our bodies are gifts from our parents, so we should protect them from harm. Young people should especially keep their natures pure and develop their virtue. It is up to them to make the world a better place to live. In happy families, the husband and wife both respect each other.
No lyingBeing honest brings peace into the world. When there is a misunderstanding, the best thing is to talk it over. This precept includes no gossip, no back-biting, no harsh words and no idle speech.
No intoxicantsThe fifth precept is based on keeping a clear mind and a healthy body. One day, when the Buddha was speaking the Dharma for the assembly, a young drunkard staggered into the room. He tripped over some monks who were sitting on the floor and started cursing loudly. His breath reeked of alcohol and filled the air with a sickening stench. Mumbling to himself, he reeled out the door.
Everyone was astonished at his rude behavior, but the Buddha remained calm. "Great assembly!" he spoke, "Take a look at this man! He will certainly lose his wealth and good name. His body will grow weak and sickly. Day and night, he will quarrel with his family and friends until they abandon him. The worst thing is that he will lose his wisdom and become stupid."
Little by little, one can learn to follow these precepts. If one sometimes forgets them, one can start all over again. Following the precepts is a lifetime job. If one kills or hurts someone's feelings by mistake, that is breaking the precepts, but it was not done on purpose.
Chapter 3
THE WHEEL OF LIFEBuddhists do not believe that death is the end of life. When one dies, one's consciousness leaves and enters one of the six paths of rebirth.

• Heavenly Beings

• Humans

• Asuras are beings who have many good things in life, but still like to fight. They appear in the heavens or on earth as people or animals.

• Hungry ghosts are beings who suffer from constant hunger.

• Hell-beings

These are the six states on the wheel of life. At the top are the heavens, where everyone is happy. Below are the hells where the suffering is unbearable. Beings can rise or fall from one path to another. If one does good deeds, one will be born into the paths of gods, humans, or asuras. If one does evil deeds, one will be born into the paths of animals, hungry ghosts, or hell-beings. From one life to the next one can suddenly change from an human to an animal or from a ghost to a hell-being, according to the things one has done.How to Escape the Turning WheelThe wheel of life and death is kept turning by the three poisons of greed, hatred, and stupidity. By cutting off the three poisons, we can escape the wheel and become enlightened. There are four stages of enlightenment.

• Buddhas- perfect in enlightenment.

• Bodhisattvas- enlighten themselves as well as others.
• Pratyekabuddhas- hermits who retreat from the world to enlighten themselves.

• Arhats- enlighten themselves.

Unit 4
THE BUDDHIST COMMUNITYIn Asia, it is considered the highest honor if a member of one's family leaves the home life. Westerners, however, may be shocked at the idea of anyone leaving their family to become a monk or nun. They may think this is selfish and turning one's back on the world. In fact, monks and nuns are not selfish at all. They dedicate themselves to helping others. They don't wish to own a lot of things, or to have money or power. They give these things up to gain something far more valuable--spiritual freedom. By living a pure simple life with others on the same path, they are able to lessen their greed, hatred, and ignorance.
Although monks and nuns live in a monastery, they do not entirely give up their families. They are allowed to visit and take care of them when they are ill.
Chapter 1
LIFE IN A MONASTERYA day in a temple begins early for monks and nuns. Long before daybreak, they attend morning ceremony and chant praises to the Buddha. The ceremonies lift one's spirit and bring about harmony. Although the Sangha lead simple lives, they have many responsibilities to fulfill. Everyone works diligently and is content with his or her duties.
During the day, some monks and nuns go about teaching in schools or speaking the Buddha's teachings. Others may revise and translate Buddhist Sutras and books, make Buddha images, take care of the temple and gardens, prepare for ceremonies, give advice to laypeople, and care for the elders and those who are sick. The day ends with a final evening ceremony.
In the daily life of work and religious practice, the monks and nuns conduct them-selves properly and are highly respected. By leading a pure, simple life, they gain extraorinary insight into the nature of things. Although their life is hard and rigorous, the results are worth it. It also keeps them healthy and energetic. The laity, who live in the temple or visits, follows the same schedule as the Sangha and works along with them.
Chapter 2
THE SHAVEN HEAD, ROBE, AND OFFERING BOWLIdeally, monks and nuns own only a few things, such as robes and an offering bowl. While most people spend lots of time and money on their hair, Buddhist monks and nuns shave their heads. They are no longer concerned with outward beauty, but with developing their spiritual lives. The shaven head is a reminder that the monks and nuns have renounced the home life and are a part of the Sangha.
Offering food to monks and nuns is a part of Buddhism. In Asia, it is not unusual to see monks walking towards the villages early in the morning carrying their offering bowls. They do not beg for food, but accept whatever is offered. This practice not only helps the monks and nuns to be humble, but gives laypeople an opportunity to give. In some countries laypeople go to the monastery to make offerings.
The robes of monks and nuns are simple and made from cotton or linen. Their color varies according to different countries. For instance, yellow robes are mostly worn in Thailand, while black robes are worn in Japan. In China and Korea, gray and brown robes are worn for work, while more elaborate robes are used for ceremonies. Dark red robes are worn in Tibet.
Robes and offering bowls are very important to monks and nuns. The Buddha said, "Just as a bird takes its wings with it wherever it flies, so the monk takes his robes and bowl with him wherever he goes."
Chapter 3
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LAITY IN BUDDHISMThe laity are very important in Buddhism, for they are the supporting members of the Buddhist community. They build the temples and monasteries and give offerings of food, robes, bedding, and medicine to the monks and nuns. This enables the Sangha to carry on the Buddha's work. In this way the Sangha and laity benefit each other and together keep the Dharma alive.
In Buddhism, it is also important to support the poor and needy. Giving to support religious people, however, is considered a very meritorious deed. The Buddha not only encouraged giving to Buddhists, but to any spiritual person who is sincere.
The Buddha taught his disciples to be tolerant of other religions. For example, when one lights a candle from the flame of another candle, the flame of the first candle does not lose its light. Instead, the two lights glow more brightly together. It is the same with the great religions of the world.
Whether one is a member of the Sangha or a lay person, the ideal is to practice Buddhism for the sake of all.
UNIT 5
DIFFERENT KINDS OF BUDDHISM
Chapter 1
TWO SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISMIn the centuries following the Buddha's lifetime, his followers faithfully preserved his teachings and spread them to many countries in Asia. Today, there are two main schools of Buddhism: Theravada and Mahayana. Theravada means 'the teaching of the Elders'. Theravada monks follow the practices that have been passed down by the senior monks from the Buddha's time, such as living in the forests and meditating. The goal in Theravada Buddhism is to become an Arhat, a person who is free of suffering. Theravada is practiced mainly in southern Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Thailand and Myanmar (Burma).
Mahayana stresses following the Buddha's example of going out into the world and doing good. Mahayana means 'Great Vehicle'. The goal in Mahayana Buddhism is to follow the Bodhisattva Path. A Bodhisattva is one who enlightens oneself as well as others. In Mahayana Buddhism, there are many Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. It mainly spread to northern Asian countries like China, Tibet, Korea, Vietnam and Japan. Recently, both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism have been introduced into the West.
Chapter 2
VISITING BUDDHIST TEMPLESIn this unit, we will pretend to visit different Buddhist temples. When visiting a temple, we should dress modestly and follow the rules and customs of the temple. Buddhists pay their respects to the Triple Jewel by facing the altar and bowing when entering the temple. Visitors may join in the worship rituals or just watch quietly.
In Buddhism, the monks and nuns are treated with great respect. They sit or stand in front of everyone else and take their food first. When we talk to them, we should put our palms together and speak politely.
Theravada BuddhismOur first visit is to a Theravada Buddhist monastery in the forest in Thailand where only the monks live. We sit in the quietness of a small bamboo temple built on stilts, surrounded by the sounds of chirping birds and rustling trees. A young monk who is our guide explains to us. "The monks live alone in huts called 'kutis'. They are built on stilts to keep the animals and insects out. There they practice sitting and walking meditation, which is very important for their spiritual life. In front of each hut is a path for walking meditation. The monks sweep them clean to keep from stepping on insects and killing them."
The guide continues, "Early in the morning and in the evening, the monks meet together for meditation and recitation. After the ceremonies called pujas, they study the Dharma. Before entering the temple they wash their feet with water carried up to the monastery from a stream below. It is traditional for the monks and nuns to live in the forest as part of their early training. The older ones, however, are not required to do so. Some monks and nuns may live all their lives in the forest, while others live in the temples in towns and cities.
Someone asks, "Living in the jungle, aren't you afraid of tigers?"
The monk answers, "Sometimes, when the monks are walking in the jungle, they sense tigers following them. But since they hold the precept of no killing, they're not afraid and the tigers know they will not be harmed."
Tibetan BuddhismNext we will visit a Tibetan temple. A young Tibetan boy named Lobsang is our guide. He smiles as he talks, "Our temple is very colorful. It is decorated with many kinds of Buddha images and wall hangings calledthankas. On the altars are beautiful lamps and incense holders. Big prayer wheels are set into the walls of the temple. Mantras, written on strips of rice paper, are placed inside the wheels. They are symbolic phrases with deep spiritual meanings. We recite them over and over as we turn the prayer wheels. There are also hand-held prayer wheels that people whirl as they walk about.
"To us Tibetans, Buddhism is a happy religion. My favorite days are the festivals. People in masks and costumes act out dramas about the life of the Buddha. Bright, new prayer flags are hung on these days. They blow in the wind along the hillsides and remind us to live in harmony with nature. Now that your visit is over, may you go with the spirit of the Buddha."
Japanese BuddhismAt a Japanese temple, we are met by Taro. She will tell us about her Sunday School: "We chant 'Namo Amida Butsu' to show our gratitude to Amida Buddha, the Buddha of Infinite Light. We believe that by reciting his name we will have a good life and be reborn in his Western Pure Land. You can see a statue of Amida in the front of the hall. On the altar you can see other beautiful things, but the most important is the offering of rice cakes.
"I will tell you why. Rice is very important to Asian people. If you were to ask a young Japanese boy or girl, 'What did you eat today?' He or she would probably say, 'Rice'" When we see rice offered, it reminds us to offer our best to the Buddha. In Sunday school, we sit in meditation on cushions called zafus. Japanese meditation is called zen.
Chinese BuddhismToday we are visiting a Chinese-American monastery in California. It is called the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas. There are over ten thousand small Buddha statues inside the main worship hall. Our guide is a young novice named Gwo Cheng from mainland China. She came to the United States when she was 10 years old and became a novice at age 11.
Gwo Cheng: "The City of Ten Thousand Buddhas is a Buddhist community where people from all over the world come to study Buddhism. The City has its own schools, but you do not have to be a Buddhist to attend our schools or to live here.
"A day at the temple begins at 4:00 a.m. with the morning ceremony. After that we bow, sit in meditation, and recite Sutras. These ceremonies lift everyone's spirits and help us live together in harmony. We do our ceremonies in both English and Chinese. There are many ceremonies throughout the day. We finish off the day with an evening ceremony and a Dharma talk.
"Everyone goes to work or school at 8:00 in the morning. In our school, we learn the way of truth and goodness We also learn both Chinese and English. We young novices attend school and are in training to become nuns. We can become fully ordained nuns when we are twenty-one, so we have time to make up our minds. We are not expected to do everything the nuns do, but we do our best. At first it was difficult to get up so early and to sit in meditation, but now we are used to it. It's a healthy life!
"After school, we help with the temple duties and do other chores. I really like gardening and planting. Many people ask me if the novices ever have any fun. We do! We are very good friends and enjoy studying together. We go on walks and picnics and sing Buddhist songs. The nuns are always thinking of fun things for us to do. We also like to see our families who live here and visit with us."
 
 

UNIT 6
BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES, SYMBOLS, AND FESTIVALS
Chapter 1
BUDDHIST SCRIPTURESThe Dharma reveals the Buddha's understanding of life. The Buddha instructed countless people, but he, himself, wrote nothing down, just as Jesus wrote nothing down. They both lived a complete life. His disciples remembered his talks and recited them regularly. These talks were collected into books called Sutras. There are many Sutras, so Buddhism does not have just a single holy book, like the Christian Bible or the Koran of Islam.
The first Sutras were written on palm leaves in Pali and Sanskrit, ancient Indian languages. They have been gathered together in a collection called the Tripitaka, which means 'three baskets'. It is divided into three parts.

• Sutra Pitaka~Sutras and their explanations
• Vinaya Pitaka~Rules for monks and nuns
• Abhidharma Pitaka~The psychology and philosophy of the Buddha's teachings

Buddhists treat Sutras with great respect and place them on the highest shelves in the most respected areas.Chapter 2
BUDDHIST SYMBOLSBuddhist symbols have special meanings that remind us of the Buddha's teachings. The main room or building is called a shrine or a Buddha Hall. In the front of this room, there is an altar. There are many beautiful things on the altar. Here are some of them.

• Images of the Buddha
• Traditional offerings
• Dharma instruments

_________________________________________________________________________________________________Buddha ImagesSome people believe that Buddhists worship idols, but this is not true. Buddhists bow or make offerings of flowers and incense in reverence to the Buddha, not to the image. When they do so they reflect on the virtues of the Buddha and are inspired to become like him. Buddha images are not necessary, but they are helpful. The most important thing is to follow the Buddha's teachings.
There are many different kinds of Buddha and Bodhisattva images that show different qualities. For example, a statue of the Buddha with his hand resting gently in his lap reminds us to develop peace within ourselves. A statue with the Buddha's right hand touching the ground shows determination.
Traditional OfferingsTraditional offerings are to show respect to the Buddha.

• Flowers- are offered as reminders of how quickly things change
• Light from lamps or candles- symbolizes wisdom
• Incense- reminds one to be peaceful
• Water- represents purity
• Food- reminds us to give our best to the Buddhas.

Dharma InstrumentsThe instruments used in ceremonies and meditation are called Dharma instruments. Each instrument has a specific use. For instance, the wooden fish is hit to keep rhythm

• Bells- gives signals in ceremonies and meditation
• Drums-announces ceremonies and keeps rhythm
• Gongs- announces ceremonies and activities
• Wooden fish-keeps rhythm while chanting

Lotus FlowerThe lotus flower represents enlightenment described in the poem.
The lotus has its roots in the mud,
Grows up through the deep water,
And rises to the surface.
It blooms into perfect beauty and purity in the sunlight.
It is like the mind unfolding to perfect joy and wisdom.
The Bodhi TreeThe Bodhi Tree is a pipal tree, a kind of fig tree found in India. After the Buddha attained enlightenment under this tree, it became known as the Bodhi Tree, the Tree of Enlightenment. It is located in Bodhgaya, where people visit to pay their respects to the Buddha. Although the parent tree is no longer alive, its grandchildren are still there.
The Buddhist FlagAs the Buddha sat beneath the Bodhi Tree after his enlightenment, six rays of light came out from his body and spread for miles around. The colors were yellow, blue, white, red, orange and a mixture of all the colors. The Buddhist flag was designed after these colors.
Stupas and PagodasStupas and pagodas are monuments where the relics of the Buddha and high monks and nuns are kept so that people can show their respects. These relics are jewels that remain after cremation.
Chapter 3
BUDDHIST FESTIVALSBuddhists have many festivals throughout the year. These festivals celebrate events in the lives of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and famous teachers. During these occasions people can also take refuge and precepts, or leave the home life to become monks and nuns.
Buddha DayFor the Buddhist community, the most important event of the year is the celebration of the Birth of the Buddha, his Enlightenment and Nirvana. It falls on the full-moon day in May. On this day, Buddhists take part in the ceremonial bathing of the Buddha. They pour ladles of water scented with flowers over a statue of the baby Siddhartha. This symbolizes purifying one's thoughts and actions.
The temples are elaborately decorated with flowers and banners; the altars are laden with offerings; vegetarian meals are provided for all; and captive animals, such as birds and turtles are set free. This is a very joyous day for everyone.
Dharma DayAsalha Puja, known as 'Dharma Day', is celebrated during full-moon in July. This holiday commemorates the first sermon of the Buddha to the five monks in the Deer Park at Benares.
Sangha DaySangha Day or Kathina Day is usually held in October. In the Theravada tradition, monks and nuns go on a three-month retreat during the rainy season. After the retreat, the laity offers robes and other necessities to them. This day symbolizes the close relationship between the Sangha and laity.
UllambanaThe observance of Ullambana is based on the story of Maudgalyayana, a disciple of the Buddha. When Maudgalyayana's mother died, he wanted to know where she was reborn. Using his spiritual powers, he traveled into the hells and found her suffering miserably from hunger. He brought her a bowl of food, but when she tried to swallow it, the food turned into hot coals.
The distressed Maudgalyayana asked the Buddha, "Why is my mother suffering in the hells?"
The Buddha replied, "In her life as a human, she was stingy and greedy. This is her retribution." He advised, "Make offerings to the Sangha. The merit and virtue from this act will release your mother and others from the hells." As a result of Maudgalyana's offering, his mother and thousands of others were released from their unhappy state. After this, making offerings to release departed relatives and others from the hells became popular in Mahayana countries. Usually, it takes place in September.
UNIT 7
HISTORY OF BUDDHISM
Chapter 1
BUDDHISM IN THE EASTBuddhism was first introduced into Sri Lanka from India in the 3rd century BC by Mahinda, the son of King Asoka. There it achieved great popularity and is still flourishing today.
In the early centuries AD, Buddhism was introduced taken to Southeast Asia by merchants and missionaries. The great monuments like Borobudur in Indonesia and Angkor Thom in Cambodia are evidence of the splendor of Buddhism in these regions.
In the 1st century AD, Buddhism reached China where many Sutras were translated into classical Chinese.
In the 4th century AD, Buddhism found its way to Korea and on into Japan.
Chapter 2
BUDDHISM IN THE WESTEven before the 17th century, people in the West heard of the Buddha and his teachings from early travelers such as Marco Polo and Christian missionaries.
By the early 20th century, many Europeans had traveled to the East to study Buddhism. Some of them became monks and inspired Buddhism in the West. In the 19th century, Chinese and Japanese immigrants brought many different traditions of Buddhism to America. Today, there are numerous Buddhist centers spread across Europe and North and South America.
UNIT 8
JATAKA TALES AND OTHER BUDDHIST STORIESThe Buddha was a great storyteller and often told stories to get his message across. Stories were also told about the Buddha by his followers both to explain and understand the Dharma. These stories have been passed down to the present day and the most popular ones are the Jataka tales, a collection of hundreds of tales about the Buddha's past lives. They show the kind of life one should lead to become a Buddha one day. In many of these stories, the Buddha appears as an animal to teach the value of qualities such as kindness, compassion, and giving.
The Monkey King and the MangoesOnce upon a time, the Buddha came into the world as a Monkey King and ruled over 80,000 monkeys. He was very tall and strong and had wisdom like the sun. In his kingdom on the banks of the Ganges River, there was a mango tree as big as the moon. The 80,000 monkeys jumped from branch to branch chattering and eating the lovely fruit that was big and sweet and delicious. Sometimes a ripe mango fell into the river.
One day, the Monkey King strolled downstream and came upon a river palace where a human king lived. "Soon danger will come if the mangoes float downstream," he told the monkeys. "Pick all the mangoes and flowers on the trees and take them deep into the forest."
But one mango, hidden by a bird's nest, was left unseen by the 80,000 monkeys. When it was large and ripe, it fell into the river and floated downstream where the human king was bathing.
The human king, who was very curious, tasted the beautiful mango. "This is delicious!' he exclaimed. "I must have more. Servants, find all the mangoes and bring them to me at once!"
Deep in the forest, the servants found hundreds of mango trees. In the trees were the 80,000 monkeys. When the human king heard about the monkeys, he was very angry, "The monkeys are eating my mangoes. Kill them all!" he ordered his archers.
"Very well," said the archers and chased the monkeys to the edge of the forest where they came to a deep cliff. There was no way for the monkeys to escape. Shivering with fright, they ran to the Monkey King asked, "What shall we do?"
"Don't be afraid. I will save you," said their king. Quickly, he stretched his huge body as far as possible and made a bridge over the cliff to a bamboo grove on the other side.
"Come monkeys, run across my back to the bamboo grove," he called. And so the 80,000 monkeys escaped.
The human king watched all that happened. He was amazed, "This Monkey King has risked his life to save his whole troop! And all I'm doing is being selfish. I have learned a great lesson." Then he called to his archers, "Put down your bows. It isn't right to kill this King of Monkeys."
Forgetting about the mangoes, the human king went back to his palace by the river and ruled kindly and wisely for the rest of his life.
The Deer KingLong ago in a forgotten forest, lived a deer named Banyan. He was golden like the sun and his horns glistened like silver. His body was as large as a colt and his eyes sparkled like jewels-alight with wisdom. He was a King of Deer and watched over a herd of 500 deer.
Not far away, another herd of deer was watched over by another golden deer named Branch. In the tall grass and shadows of the deep forest, the two herds lived in peace.
One day, the King of Benares was out on a hunt and spied the beautiful green forest where the deer lived. "What a perfect hunting ground!" he declared and into the forests he dashed with his thousands of hunters and came upon the two herds of deer. Without a moment's hesitation, he notched an arrow in his bow. Suddenly he spotted the two golden deer. Never had he seen such beautiful creatures! "From this day on," he commanded, "No one is to harm or kill these golden deer."
Thereafter, he came to the forest everyday and killed more deer than was needed for his dinner table. As the weeks went by, many deer were wounded and died in great pain.
Finally Banyan Deer called the two herds together, "Friends, we know there is no escape from death, but this needless killing can be prevented. Let the deer take turns going to the chopping block, one day from my herd and the next day from Branch's herd."
All the deer agreed. Each day the deer whose turn it was went to the chopping block on the edge of the forest and laid its head upon the block.
One day, the turn fell to a pregnant doe from Branch's herd. She went to Branch Deer and begged, "Grant that I be passed over until after my fawn is born. Then I will gladly take my turn."
Branch Deer replied, "It is your turn. You must go."
In despair, the poor doe went to Banyan Deer and explained her plight. He gently said, "Go rest in peace. I will put your turn upon another."  The deer king went and laid his golden head upon the chopping block. A deep silence fell in the forest.
When the king of Benares came and saw the golden deer ready for sacrifice, his heart skipped a beat, "You are the leader of the herd," he exclaimed, "You should be the last to die!" Banyan Deer explained how he had come to save the life of the doe.
A tear rolled down the cheek of the king. "Golden Deer King," he exclaimed. "Among men and beasts, I have not seen one with such compassion. Arise! I spare both your life and hers.
"So we will be safe. But what shall the rest of the deer do?" "Their lives I shall also spare." "So the deer will be safe, but what will the other four-footed animals do?" "From now on they too will be safe." "And what of the birds?" "I will spare their lives." "And the fish in the water" "The fish shall be spared- all creatures of the land, sea, and sky will be free."
Having saved the lives of all creatures, the golden deer raised his head from the chopping block and returned to the forest.
The Wounded SwanOne day when Prince Siddhartha and his cousin Devadatta were walking in the woods, they saw a swan. Quickly, Devadatta drew his bow and shot the swan down. Siddhartha rushed to the wounded swan and pulled out the arrow. He held the bird in his arms and caressed it.
Devadatta angrily shouted at Prince Siddhartha, "Give me the swan. I shot it. It belongs to me!"
"I shall never give it to you, You will only kill it!" said the prince firmly. "Let's ask the ministers of the court and let them decide."
The ministers all had different views. Some said, "The swan should be given to Devadatta." Others said, "It should go to Prince Siddhartha." One wise minister stood up and said, "A life belongs to one who saves it, not to one who will destroy it. The swan goes to the prince."
Prince Siddhartha took care of the swan until it could fly again. Then he turned it loose so it could live freely with its own kind.
Aniruddha and the Golden RabbitOnce there was a poor farmer who offered his only bowl of rice to a holy man who was even poorer than he. This meant he would have nothing to eat that day. He went back to his work and forgot all about having given his rice away. Suddenly a rabbit hopped alongside the farmer and jumped on his back. The surprised farmer tried to brush it off. He tried to shake it off, he tried to knock it off, but the rabbit would not bulge.
He ran home to his wife, crying, "Get this rabbit off my back!" By this time the rabbit had turned into solid gold! The wife flipped the rabbit into the air. It hit the floor with a "Crackkk!" One of its golden legs broke off and another one magically grew in its place.
From that day on, whenever the farmer and his wife needed money, they would break off a piece of the golden rabbit. And from that life onward, Aniruddha was never poor. This was his reward for giving.
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
                                                      A LESSON IN MEDITATION
Concentration on the BreathA very simple way of meditating is concentrating on your breath. The breath is like a bridge between your body and mind. When you concentrate on your breath for a while, your body becomes relaxed and your mind becomes peaceful.

• Sit in a comfortable position with your back straight.
• Place your hands in your lap with the left hand on the bottom.
• Keep your eyes half-closed or closed.
• Concentrate on the tip of your nose. Notice your breath going in and out.

Lotus postureFull lotus is the best sitting posture. Begin by sitting in half-lotus, then work your way up to full lotus.

• Full-lotus- Sit on the edge of a cushion. Place your left ankle on your right thigh. Then lift your right ankle onto your left thigh.
• Half-lotus- Lift your left ankle onto your right thigh.

Note: It is best to sit at the same time and place everyday. Increase your sitting time little
by little. You may sit in a chair or stand if necessary.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
GLOSSARYasuras: Beings who like to fight.Bodhi tree: A pipal tree that is known as the 'tree of enlightenment'. The tree under which Gautama achieved enlightenment and became a Buddha.
Bodhisattva: A compassionate being who enlightens himself and helps others to be enlightened.
Buddha: The Enlightened or Awakened One. The word 'Bodhi' means to awaken.
Buddha Hall: The main room inside a Buddhist temple.
Buddha nature:
Dharma: Teachings of the Buddha
enlightenment: Understanding the truth of life, freedom from ignorance.
Five Precepts: The five rules of conduct given by the Buddha to his disciples: no killing, no stealing, no sexual misconduct, no false speech, no intoxicants.
Four Noble Truths: The first teachings spoken by the Buddha: the truth of suffering, the cause of suffering, the end of suffering, and the Path leading to the end of suffering.
hungry ghosts: Ghosts that suffer a lot because they are greedy.
Jataka tales: stories about the past lives of the Buddha.
karma: 'Action' or the law of cause and effect. For every action there is a cause.
Kathina: A 'festival of giving' held in autumn, where people make offerings to the monks and nuns.
lamas: Tibetan religious leaders.
lotus posture: A meditation posture.
lotus: The lotus symbolizes the purity of the Buddha. It grows out of mud, yet it is not defiled by it.
Mahayana: The tradition of Northern Buddhism.
mantras: Symbolic phrases that Buddhists chant.
meditation: A method of calming and training the mind.
Middle Way: The path in life prescribed by the Buddha, the path between extremes.
Nirvana: An everlasting state of great joy and peace.
Noble Eightfold Path: The Buddha's prescription for ending suffering. It is made up of eight parts: right views, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
offering bowl: A bowl that nuns and monks receive offerings in.
Pali: An ancient language of India that the Buddhist Sutras were originally written in.
Pratyekabuddha: Hermits who become enlightened by themselves.
puja: A Pali word for Buddhist worship.
Sangha: The community of Buddhist nuns and monks.
Sanskrit: An ancient language of India that the Buddhist Sutras were written in.
Six Perfections: The six ideals that a Bodhisattva perfects: giving morality, patience, effort, concentration, and wisdom.
stupas: Monuments to the Buddha
Sutras: The Buddha's teachings in writing.
thankas: Wall hangings found in Tibetan temples.
Theravada: The tradition of Southern Buddhism.
Three Refuges: The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.
Tripitaka: The 'three baskets', a collection of the Buddha's written teachings.
Triple Jewel: The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.
Ullambana: A Buddhist festival when offerings are given to the Sangha..
Wheel of Life and Death: The six worldly states of rebirth: gods, asuras, humans, animals, hungry ghosts, and hell-beings.
zafu: A round meditation cushion used in Japanese Buddhism.
Zen: Japanese meditation.
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1. According to
•  Incorrect: According to me, she should have resigned earlier.
•  Correct: In my opinion, she should have resigned earlier.
We do not give our own opinions with according to.

2. Across and through
The difference between across and through is similar to the difference between
on and in. We use through to talk about movement in three dimensional spaces
with things on all sides.
•  We walked across the field. (= We were on the field.) Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 8
•  We walked through the wood. (= We were in the wood.)

3. Adjectives ending in -ly
•  Incorrect: She smiled friendly.
• Correct: She smiled in a friendly way.
• Incorrect: He laughed silly.
•  Correct: He gave a silly laugh
Here the error lies in using an adjective instead of an adverb. We use adverbs to
modify verbs. Most adverbs end in –ly; there are also a few adjectives that end in –
ly. Examples are: costly, friendly, lively, likely, lonely, lovely, silly and ugly. There
are no adverbs costly/costlily or friendly/friendlily.

4. Ago and before
•  Incorrect: His father died three years before.
• Correct: His father died three years ago.
Ago is used to count back from the present. It is used with a past tense and a time
expression. Before is used when you date back from any point of time which is
made specific.
•  I saw him two years before I went to England.

5. All and every
•  Incorrect: Every children need love.
•  Correct: Every child needs love.
• Incorrect: All the light was out.
•  Correct: All the lights were out.
Every is used with a singular noun. All is used with a plural noun.

6. All right and alright Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 9
The standard spelling is all right, but alright is more common although many
people consider it incorrect.

7. Already and all ready
•  Incorrect: We are already for the show.
•  Correct: We are all ready for the show.
•  Incorrect: They have all ready arrived.
•  Correct: They have already arrived.
All ready means ‘all are ready’. Already means 'by now' or 'sooner than
expected'.
•  The train had already left before we reached the station.
•  The patient had already died before the doctor arrived.

8. Alternate and alternative
Alternative means 'different', 'instead', 'on the other hand'.
•  We will make an alternative arrangement if these plans don't suit you.
•  I had to go. There was no alternative.
Alternate means 'every second' or 'in turns'.
He only comes to work on alternate days.

9. Altogether and all together
Altogether means ‘entirely’ or ‘everything considered’.
•  I don’t altogether agree.
•  It is altogether wrong to ill-treat animals.
All together simply means ‘everybody / everything together’.
•  They all went out together.
•  She put the glasses all together in the sink.
 Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 10
10. Any and some
Both some and any suggest an indefinite amount or number. Some is more
common in affirmative clauses. Any is used in questions and negative clauses.
Compare:
•  I need some pencils. (NOT I need any pencils.)
• Have you got any pencils?
•  Sorry, I haven't got any pencils.

11. Anyhow and somehow
•  Incorrect: He did it anyhow.
•  Correct: He managed to do it somehow.
•  Incorrect: He keeps his things somehow in his desk.
•  Correct: He keeps his things anyhow in his desk. (= He doesn’t keep his
things in order.)
•  Incorrect: He may not come but somehow I shall.
• Correct: He may not come but anyhow I shall. (= I will certainly come.)
Use 'anyhow' to mean 'in disorder'. ‘Anyhow’ can also mean 'for certain'.

12. Articles
The misuse of the and a is very common. Here are the basic rules for the use and
omission of articles.
Proper nouns (e.g. John, Alice and India) do not take articles.
•  Incorrect: The John is my friend.
• Correct: John is my friend.
•  Incorrect: The Tokyo is a big city.
• Correct: Tokyo is a big city.
A singular common noun (e.g. boy, cat, tree, book, apple etc.) must have an
article.  Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 11
•  Incorrect: There is cat on roof.
•  Correct: There is a cat on the roof.
A plural common noun cannot be used with the article a. It is usually used with
no article, though 'some' is sometimes used before it.
Compare:
•  A spider has eight legs.
•  Spiders have eight legs.
Remember that a noun can be common in one sentence and proper in another
sentence.
A superlative adjective is usually used with the.
•  Incorrect: He is best player in the team.
•  Correct: He is the best player in the team.

13. Article a – correct use
The article 'a' placed in front of a noun conveys the idea of 'one'. When writing
about two separate objects, a second 'a' must be used. If the two objects are
considered as one, then the second 'a' may be left out.
•  Incorrect: I have a hammer and chisel.
• Correct: I have a hammer and a chisel. (Here we are talking about two
separate objects.)
•  Incorrect: She has a son and daughter.
•  Correct: She has a son and a daughter.
•  Incorrect: The mechanic used a block and a tackle to lift the machine.
• Correct: The mechanic used a block and tackle to lift the machine. (Here
we are talking about one object.)

14. Ask and ask for
Ask for: ask somebody to give something
Ask: ask somebody to tell something
•  He asked me for a loan. (NOT He asked me a loan.) Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 12
•  They asked ten dollars for the book.
• If you don't know the answer, ask the teacher.
•  Don't ask me my name. (NOT Don’t ask me for my name)

15. At first and first
At first is used to talk about the beginning of a situation. It is often followed by
but. In other cases, we usually use first.
•  At first everything seemed fine, but then things started going wrong.
•  I first met her at a restaurant.

16. Avenge and revenge
•  Incorrect: I must revenge my father.
•  Correct: I must avenge my father.
•  Incorrect: I must revenge my enemy.
•  Correct: I must take revenge on my enemy.
These two words are often confused. To 'avenge my father' means to ‘punish
someone who has hurt my father’.


17. Back and again
When used with a verb, back suggests a return to an earlier situation or a
movement in the opposite direction.
•  Give me my watch back. (NOT Give me my watch again.)
• Take your money back.
•  Put the book back on the shelf when you have finished with it.
•  These mangoes aren't good. I am taking them back to the shop.
When used with a verb, again suggests repetition.
•  I did not hear what you said. Please say it again.
•  That was a lovely song. Can you play it again?
18. Bath and bathe Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 13
In British English, the verb bath is used to mean 'wash oneself in a bath tub'.
•  Children should bath regularly.
The verb bath is not used in American English. Instead, the expressions 'have a
bath' or 'take a bath' are used.
•  As I was feeling hot, I took a bath.
In British English, bathe means 'swim for pleasure'. It is very formal. In an
informal style, we use the expressions 'have a swim' or 'go for a swim'.
•  He said he had a good bathe.
In American English, bathe is used to mean 'take a bath'.
•  I always bathe before I go to bed. (= I always take a bath before I go to
bed.)
Note that to lie in the sun is to sunbathe.

19. Beat and win
Beat is usually followed by an object which refers to the person you are playing or
fighting against.
•  She always beats me at poker.
Win can also be followed by an object, but it usually refers to things like money or
prize. You can also win in a game, a race, a battle or an argument.
•  She won the first prize in the quiz competition.
•  She always wins when we play poker.

20. Because
•  Incorrect: He did not come to school. Because he was ill.
•  Correct: He did not come to school because he was ill.
This is a very common punctuation mistake. Because is a subordinating
conjunction. It must not be separated from its main clause by a full stop.
 Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 14
21. Because and because of
Because is a conjunction. It is used to join two clauses and is followed by a subject
and verb.
•  We couldn’t go out because it rained.
•  I did it because he told me to do it.
Note that the ‘because clause’ can come before or after the main clause.
•  Because it was so hot, we went home.
• We went home because it was so hot.
Because of is a two-word preposition. It is used before a noun or a pronoun.
• We couldn’t go out because of the rain.
•  I did it because of him.

22. Because and for
•  Incorrect: I am glad for tomorrow is a holiday.
•  Correct: I am glad because tomorrow is a holiday.
For is hardly wrong, but it is better to use because to introduce a casual clause.

23. Begin and start
There is little or no difference between begin and start. Begin is more common in
a formal style.
•  He started / began working when he was 19.
•  We will begin / start the next lesson tomorrow.
•  It is time to begin / start work.
Cases where begin is not possible
We start (but not begin) a journey or a machine.
•  We started in the morning and reached before sunset. (NOT We began in
the morning...)
•  How do you start a washing machine? (NOT How do you begin a washing
machine?)
•  At last the train started. (NOT At last the train began.) Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 15
24. Beside and besides
Beside is a preposition. It means 'by' or 'next to'.
•  The mother sat beside her children.
• Who is that fat lady sitting beside Peter?
Besides is similar to as well as. It is used to add new information to what is
already known.
•  Besides the violin, he can play the guitar and the piano.
•  Who was at the party besides Jane and Peter?

25. Besides, except and apart from
These expressions often cause confusion. Besides usually adds whereas except
subtracts.
Compare:
•  Besides mathematics, we have to learn physics and chemistry. (We learn
three subjects.)
•  He can play all musical instruments except the flute. (He can’t play the
flute.)
Apart from can be used in both senses.
•  Apart from mathematics, we have to learn physics and chemistry. (=
Besides mathematics, we have to ...)
• He can play all musical instruments apart from the violin. (= He can play
all musical instruments except the violin.)

26. Between and among
We use between with two or more clearly separate people or things. We use
among when the reference is to a group, a crowd, or a mass of people or things
which we do not see separately.
•  She sat between Alice and Mary. (Two clearly separate people)
•  She sat among her students. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 16
•  There is a tourist home between the woods, the river and the hills.
(Three clearly separate things)
•  The tourist home is hidden among the trees.
We use between, not among, after difference.
•  What is the main difference between a square and a rectangle?

27. Between and during
•  Incorrect: England grew prosperous between Queen Victoria's reign.
•  Correct: England grew prosperous during Queen Victoria's reign.
• Incorrect: The First World War was fought during 1914 - 18.
•  Correct: The First World War was fought between 1914 - 18.
Two events must be mentioned if you want to use between.

28. Between and from
A common mistake that is often noticed these days is the use of to after between.
•  Incorrect: The interview will be held between 2 to 4pm.
•  Correct: The interview will be held between 2 and 4 pm.
•  Incorrect: The conference will take place between the 12th to the 18th of this
month.
•  Correct: The conference will take place between the 12th and the 18th of
this month.
Or else you can say:
•  The interview will be held from 2 to 4 pm.
•  The conference will take place from the 12th to the 18th of this month.

29. Big, large and great
We use big and large with concrete nouns - the names of objects which we can
see or touch. In an informal style, big is more common than large.
•  He has got big / large feet.
•  They have a large / big house in the city. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 17
We use great with abstract nouns - the names of things which we cannot see or
touch.
•  I think it was a great mistake.
•  I have great respect for him.
In an informal style big is also used with countable abstract nouns. Large is not
used with abstract nouns.
•  I think it was a big mistake. (BUT NOT I think it was a large mistake.)
None of these three words are used with uncountable nouns.
•  I have got a lot of luggage. (NOT I have got big/large/great luggage.)

30. Born and borne
The passive form of the verb born (be + born) is used to talk about coming into
the world at birth.
•  He was born to poor parents.
•  I was born on a Friday.
•  She was born in Italy.
Borne is the past participle form of the verb bear.  It is sometimes used to mean
'give birth to' or 'carry'.
•  She has borne eight children. (= She has given birth to eight children.)

31. Bring and take
•  Incorrect: I don't know what to bring when I leave for the conference.
•  Correct: I don't know what to take when I leave for the conference.
•  Incorrect: I shall bring my wife with me when I go.
•  Correct: I shall take my wife with me when I go.
•  Incorrect: Take that book to me at my desk.
•  Correct: Bring that book to me at my desk.
Use bring when something is being moved towards the speaker.
•  Bring me that book.
Use take when something is being moved away from the area of the speaker. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 18
•  Take that file with you. (Here the file is being moved away from the area of
the speaker.)
32. But
• Incorrect: He is the fastest runner and he came last.
•  Correct: He is the fastest runner but he came last.
But is the conjunction to use when the second main clause gives unexpected or
contradictory information.

33. Change of tense
The first verb in a sentence establishes the tense of any verb that comes later. If
you begin writing in the past, don’t change to the present. Similarly, if you begin
writing in the present, don’t change to the past.
•  Incorrect: In the story, the king loses his kingdom, but he regained
everything in the end.
•  Correct: In the story, the king loses his kingdom, but he regains everything
in the end.
•  Incorrect: The team won yesterday, but goes and loses this afternoon.
•  Correct: The team won yesterday, but went and lost this afternoon.

34. Close and shut
There is little difference of meaning between close and shut.
•  Shut/close your eyes.
•  Can you close/shut the door?
•  They close/shut the shops at 8 o'clock.
Cases where close is preferred
We close (and not shut) roads, letters, bank accounts, meetings etc.
•  You should close your existing account before opening a new account. (NOT
You should shut your existing account …)
 Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 19
35. Cloth and clothes
Cloth is the material used for making clothes. Clothes are things you wear.
•  His clothes are made of expensive cloth.

36. Collective nouns
Group words or collective nouns take a singular verb if you are talking of the
group as a whole. They take a plural verb if you are talking about the individual
members of the group.
Compare:
•  The jury is in the courtroom. (Here we are talking about the whole group.)
•  The jury are still debating the case. (Here we are talking about the
individual members of the group.)
Note: Collective nouns are always singular in American English.

37. Come and go
Come is used for movements to the place where the speaker or hearer is.
•  Come to me. (Movement towards the speaker)
• 'Alice, can you come here?'  'Yes, I am coming.' (NOT I am going.)
•  Can I come and sit beside you? (Movement towards the hearer)
Go is used for movements to other places.
•  Let's go and see them. (NOT Let's come and see them.)
•  I want to go and live in the hills. (NOT I want to come and live in the hills.)

38. Common preposition + noun combinations
•  At the cinema; at the theatre; at the party; at university
•  By car/bike/bus/train/boat/plane/land/sea/air
•  On the radio; on TV; on the phone
•  In pen/pencil/ink
•  In a suit/raincoat/shirt/skirt/hat etc Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 20
39. Comparatives and superlatives
The comparative (e.g. taller, sharper, stronger, heavier, shorter etc.) is used to
compare one person or thing with another person or thing.
•  John is taller than Peter.
•  Alice is cleverer than Mary.
The superlative (e.g. tallest, sharpest, strongest, heaviest, shortest etc.) is used
to compare somebody or something with the whole group to which she/he/it
belongs.
•  John is the tallest boy in the class.
•  Alice is the prettiest of the four girls.
•  He is the best player in the team.
When a group has only two members, we prefer the comparative to the superlative.
• Incorrect: Take the shortest of the two routes.
•  Correct: Take the shorter of the two routes.
•  Incorrect: She is the prettiest of the two sisters.
•  Correct: She is the prettier of the two sisters.

40. Comparatives:  a common error
In comparative sentences be careful to compare the same part of two things. That
of, these of and those of are necessary words that are often omitted.
•  Incorrect: His teaching was like Jesus Christ.
• Correct: His teaching was like that of Jesus Christ.
•  Incorrect: The size of the shoe must be the same as this shoe.
•  Correct: The size of the shoe must be the same as that of this shoe.
•  Incorrect: My books are better than my friend.
•  Correct: My books are better than those of my friend.

41. Conjunctions
One conjunction is enough to join two clauses. English does not require a second
conjunction. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 21
•  Incorrect: Though he is old but he is healthy.
•  Correct: Though he is old he is healthy. OR He is old but he is healthy.
•  Incorrect: As he was fat so he ran slowly.
•  Correct: As he was fat he ran slowly. OR He was fat so he ran slowly.
•  Incorrect: If you work hard then you will succeed.
• Correct: If you work hard you will succeed.
• Incorrect: Because he is clever therefore he gets good marks.
•  Correct: Because he is clever he gets good marks.

42. Correlatives
When the correlatives either...or, neither...nor, both...and, not only...but also
are used, you must see that they are placed before words of the same part of
speech.
•  Incorrect: The car either dashed against a dog or a goat. (verb-noun)
•  Correct: The car dashed against either a dog or a goat. (noun-noun)
•  Incorrect: Neither he would eat nor allow us to eat. (noun-verb)
•  Correct: He would neither eat nor allow us to eat. (verb-verb)
•  Incorrect: Neither he smokes nor drinks. (noun-verb)
•  Correct: He neither smokes nor drinks. (verb-verb)

43. Dead and died
Dead is an adjective. It is used to modify a noun.
•  He is dead. (NOT He is died.)
•  A dead man (NOT A died man)
Died is the past tense and the past participle of the verb die.
•  He has died. (NOT He has dead.)
•  He died last year. (NOT He dead last year.)

44. Determiners
Articles (a/an, the), possessives (my, your, his, her, their, our etc.) and
demonstratives (this, that, these and those) are called Group A determiners. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 22
Note that we cannot put two Group A determiners together. We can say my cat, the
cat or that cat, but not the my cat or my that cat.
In order to put together the meanings of a possessive and an article or a
demonstrative, we use a structure with of.
•  He is a friend of mine. (NOT He is a my friend.)
•  These shoes of mine pinch me terribly. (NOT These my shoes pinch me
terribly.)
•  Those dirty fingers of yours have stained the walls. (NOT Those your dirty
fingers have ...)

45. Do and make
Do is sometimes confused with make. Make is used to talk about building or
creating.
•  Let's make a cake.
•  I once made a toy train.
Do is sometimes used instead of make. This is common when we want to sound
casual about a creative activity.
•  'What shall we eat?' 'Well, let me do an omelette.' (More casual than ‘Let
me make an omelette.’)
Common fixed expressions with do and make
Both do and make are used in some common fixed expressions.
Do good, harm, business, one's best, a favor, sport, exercise, one's hair, one's
teeth, one's duty, 50mph etc.
Make a journey, an offer, arrangements, a suggestion, a decision, an attempt, an
effort, an excuse, an exception, a mistake, a noise, a phone call, money, a profit, a
fortune, love, peace, war, a bed, a fire, progress etc.

46. Double negatives
Never use a negative verb and a negative qualifier (e.g. nothing, hardly, scarcely,
nobody etc.) together. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 23
•  Incorrect: I haven't nothing to prove.
•  Correct: I have nothing to prove.
• Incorrect: Alice can't hardly wait until her birthday.
•  Correct: Alice can hardly wait until her birthday.
•  Incorrect: There wasn't nobody at the door.
•  Correct: There was nobody at the door.

47. During and for
During is used to say when something happens. For is used to say how long it
lasts.
•  Incorrect: I was in France for the summer.
•  Correct: I was in France during the summer.
• Incorrect: I was in France during two months.
•  Correct: I was in France for two months.

48. Each and every
Use each and every together only if you want to convey very strong emphasis.
•  Incorrect: Each and every person wore a hat.
•  Correct: Each person wore a hat.
• Correct: Everybody wore a hat.

49. Each other and one another
In modern English each other and one another are used in the same way. One
another is preferred when we are making general statements.
•  They have stopped talking to each other/one another.
Both expressions can be used in the possessive form.
•  They would sit for hours listening to each other's / one another's tales.

50. East, eastern, north, northern etc. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 24
The words east, west etc., are used for clearly defined places. The words eastern,
western etc., are used when we are talking about vague areas.
Compare:
•  The northern part of the country is hilly.
•  The north side of the house has four windows.
Capital letters
Capital letters are used at the beginning of East, Eastern, North, Northern etc.,
when they come in official place names.
•  South Africa
•  the Middle East
•  North Korea
In other cases these words begin with small letters.
• The sun rises in the east.
•  He came from the west.

51. Elder and eldest
•  Incorrect: He is elder than me.
•  Correct: He is older than me.
•  Incorrect: He is the eldest man in the village.
•  Correct: He is the oldest man in the village.
Elder and eldest can be used to talk about the order of birth of the members of a
family. Note that they are only used before nouns.  After a verb we use older or
oldest.
•  My elder/older brother is a writer.
•  His eldest/oldest son is in the Army.
•  He is older than me. (NOT He is elder than me. Elder and eldest can’t be
used in the predicative (after a verb) position.)

52. End and finish
When followed by a direct object, finish means complete. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 25
•  I have finished my job. (= I have completed my job.)
•  You never let me finish a sentence. (= You never let me complete a
sentence.)
Finish can be followed by an -ing form.
•  Have you finished writing that novel?
When followed by a direct object, end means stop.
•  They have decided to end their affair. (NOT They have decided to finish
their affair.)
End cannot be followed by an -ing form.
When they are not followed by objects, end and finish have similar meanings.
•  When does the concert finish/end?

53. Enough
•  Incorrect: He was enough foolish to trust her.
•  Correct: He was foolish enough to trust her.
•  Incorrect: If I were enough rich, I would buy a new car.
•  Correct: If I were rich enough, I would buy a new car.
The adverb enough comes after the adjective which it qualifies.

54. Especially and specially
Both specially and especially can often be used with the same meaning.
•  It was not specially / especially cold.
Especially can mean 'above all'.
•  Sometimes I feel rather lonely, especially in the evenings.
Specially is used to mean 'for a particular purpose'.
•  I made this cake specially for you.
 Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 26
55. Except and except for
•  Incorrect: Except you, I like everyone.
• Correct: Except for you, I like everyone.
• Incorrect: Except this mistake, you did very well.
•  Correct: Except for this mistake, you did very well.
Except can be used without for after words like all, every, no, everything,
anybody, nowhere, whole etc. In other cases we usually use except for.
•  He cleaned all the rooms except the bedroom. OR He cleaned all the rooms
except for the bedroom. (Except can be used without for after all.)
•  Nobody was invited except Peter and Alice. OR Nobody was invited
except for Peter and Alice.
•  I like everyone except / except for you.
•  They were all tired except / except for John.
•  That was a good essay, except for a few spelling mistakes. (NOT That was a
good essay, except a few spelling mistakes.)
Before prepositions and conjunctions we use except.

56. Expect and hope
•  Incorrect: She is hoping a raise.
•  Correct: She is expecting a raise.
When we expect something we think that it will in fact happen. When we hope for
something to happen, we would like it to happen, but we don't know whether it will.
•  She is expecting a baby. (= She is pregnant now.)
•  She is hoping that it will be a girl. (She doesn’t know whether it will be a
boy or a girl, but she will be happier if it is a girl.)
We can expect good or bad things to happen, but we only hope for good things.

57. Expressions without prepositions
The verbs discuss, enter, marry, lack, resemble and approach are normally
followed by objects without prepositions.
•  Incorrect: She married with an old man. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 27
•  Correct: She married an old man.
•  Incorrect: We must discuss about the plans.
•  Correct: We must discuss the plans.
•  Incorrect: The baby resembles to its dad.
•  Correct: The baby resembles its dad.

58. Far and a long way
We use far in questions and negative clauses.
•  Did you walk far?
•  The railway station is not far from here.
We use a long way in affirmative clauses.
•  We walked a long way. (NOT We walked far.)
•  The post office is a long way from here.
Far is common in affirmative clauses with adverbs like too, so, enough and as.
•  You have walked a bit too far.

59. Gerund
•  Incorrect: I am thinking to write a novel.
•  Correct: I am thinking of writing a novel.
•  Incorrect: We were prevented from enter the room.
• Correct: We were prevented from entering the room.
A preposition is followed by a gerund (-ing forms) and not an infinitive.
•  Incorrect: They insisted on me resigning the post.
•  Correct: They insisted on my resigning the post.
•  Incorrect: They objected to John playing for the other team.
•  Correct: They objected to John's playing for the other team.
A noun or a pronoun used before a gerund should be in the possessive case. Note
that the possessive case should not be used with a gerund when the gerund is in
the passive or when the noun or pronoun denotes a lifeless thing.
•  Incorrect: There is no danger of the roof's crashing. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 28
•  Correct: There is no danger of the roof crashing.
60. Historic present
When writing about a past event, we can use the present tense to make it appear
as if the event is actually happening. Even if a person is dead, he or she can still be
spoken of in the present tense. This is known as using the historic present.
The following sentences are written using the historic present.
•  Winston Churchill is one of England’s greatest statesmen.
•  Captain Cook is responsible for white settlement in Australia.

61. I don't mind
•  Incorrect: 'Will you have some coffee?' 'I don't mind.'
•  Correct: 'Will you have some coffee?' 'Thank you' OR 'No, thank you.'
Say ‘Thanks’ or ‘Thank you’ while accepting an offer. Say ‘No, thanks’ or ‘No, thank
you’ while declining an offer.
'I don't mind' is rude. It shows indifference: that the person does not care whether
he drinks coffee or not. 'I don't mind' should be used only when it is permissible to
indicate no strong preference.

62. If clauses
•  Incorrect: If it rains we would cancel the match.
•  Correct: If it rains we will cancel the match.
•  Incorrect: If you hit the dog, it would bite you.
•  Correct: If you hit the dog, it will bite you.
When the verb in the if-clause is in the simple present tense, we use
will/shall/can/may + infinitive in the main clause.
•  Incorrect: If you studied hard, you will get a first class.
•  Correct: If you studied hard, you would get a first class. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 29
When the verb in the if-clause is in the simple past tense, we use
would/should/could/might + infinitive in the main clause. Sentences of these
types are used to talk about purely imaginary situations.
•  Incorrect: If you had studied hard, you would get a first class.
•  Correct: If you had studied hard, you would have got a first class.
When the verb in the main clause is in the past perfect tense, we use
would/should/could/might + have + past participle in the main clause.

63. Imperative sentences
•  Incorrect: See that you will come for the meeting in time.
•  Correct: See that you come for the meeting in time.
•  Incorrect: Take care that you will not be cheated.
•  Correct: Take care that you are not cheated.
It is wrong to use future tense in the subordinate clause when the verb in the
main clause is in the imperative mood. In such clauses, the simple present
should be used instead of the simple future.

64. Indirect questions
The indirect question is really not a question at all. It has no inversion of subject
and predicate as in a direct question. It does not use the auxiliary do either.
Compare:
•  Direct: Where are you going?
•  Indirect: He asked me where I was going. (NOT He asked me where was I
going?)
•  Direct: When does he propose to start?
•  Indirect: I want to know when he proposes to start. (NOT I want to know
when does he propose to start?)
Note that we do not use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.

65. Invent and discover Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 30
•  Incorrect: Who invented America?
•  Correct: Who discovered America?
• Incorrect: Who discovered the telephone?
•  Correct: Who invented the telephone?
Use invent of something which did not exist until man created it. Example: a
computer or a telephone. Use discover of something which existed without man's
knowledge. Example: mineral deposits, countries, continents, planets etc.

66. Inversion of subject and verb
•  Incorrect: Never I have seen such a sight.
•  Correct: Never have I seen such a sight.
•  Incorrect: Hardly I have had any rest for a week.
•  Correct: Hardly have I had any rest for a week.
When the first word of the sentence is a negative, the main verb comes before the
subject, as in a direct question.

67. Its and it’s
These two words often cause confusion.
Its is the possessive form of it.
•  Every country has its traditions.
It’s is the contracted form of it is or it has.
•  It’s raining. (= It is raining.)
•  It’s gone. (= It has gone.)

68. Joining sentences
•  Incorrect: This is my friend, he was at school with me.
• Correct: This is my friend who was at school with me.
•  Incorrect: This is my house, I live here.
•  Correct: This is my house where I live.
•  Incorrect: This is an interesting story, I am reading it. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 31
•  Correct: This is an interesting story which I am reading.
Two main clauses which are not separated by a full stop should be linked by a
conjunction or a relative pronoun.

69. Keep and put
•  Incorrect: He kept the book on the table.
•  Correct: He put the book on the table.
•  Incorrect: He always puts his money in this box.
•  Correct: He always keeps his money in this box.
Use keep of a more or less permanent resting place. Use put of only a temporary
one.

70. Kind and kinds, sort and sorts etc.
The words kind, sort, type and class are singular and should be used with this or
that to modify a singular noun. The words kinds, sorts, types and classes are
plural and should be used with these or those to modify plural nouns.
•  Incorrect: I like these kind of mangoes.
•  Correct: I like these kinds of mangoes.
•  Incorrect: I don't like this sort of meat pies.
•  Correct: I don't like this sort of meat pie.
•  Incorrect: Those are the kinds of film I like to watch.
•  Correct: Those are the kinds of films I like to watch.
•  Incorrect: These type of cars are very fast.
•  Correct: These types of cars are very fast.

71. Less and fewer
Less refers to a quantity that cannot be counted. Fewer refers to a number that
can be counted.
Compare:
•  I am eating less meat.
•  We caught fewer fish. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 32
•  There were fewer children in the class than expected.
•  We did less work today than yesterday.

72. Lie and Lay
•  Incorrect: Dad has laid on the sofa all morning.
• Correct: Dad has lain on the sofa all morning.
•  Incorrect: Mother says she has already lain the table.
•  Correct: Mother says she has already laid the table.
• Incorrect: The book was lain on the table.
•  Correct: The book was laid on the table.
•  Incorrect: I would like to lay in the sun.
•  Correct: I would like to lie in the sun.
To lie means to rest. Its different forms are given below:
Infinitive: lie; -ing form: lying; Past tense: lay; Past participle: lain
•  I lie on the bed.
•  I am lying on the bed.
•  I was lying on the bed.
•  I lay on the bed.
•  I have lain on the bed.
To lie also means ‘to not tell the truth’. Its different forms are given below:
Infinitive: lie; -ing form: lying; past tense: lied; past participle: lied
•  I lie.
•  I am lying.
•  I was lying.
•  I lied.
•  I have lied.
To lay means ‘to put something down.’ Its different forms are:
Infinitive: lay; -ing form: laying; past tense: laid; past participle: laid
•  I lay the plate on the table.
•  I am laying the plate on the table.
•  I was laying the plate on the table.
•  I laid the plate on the table.
•  I have laid the plate on the table.  Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 33
73. Like and as
As is followed by a clause. Like is followed by a noun.
•  Incorrect: He did like he was told.
• Correct: He did as he was told.
•  Incorrect: He fought like a tiger does.
• Correct: He fought like a tiger.
•  Correct: He fought as a tiger does.

74. Look after and look for
Look after means ‘take care of’. Look for means ‘try to find’.
•  Nurses look after sick people. (= Nurses take care of sick people.)
•  I am looking for my keys. (= I am trying to find my keys.)

75. Lose and loose
Lose is an irregular verb (lose – lost – lost). Loose is the opposite of tight. It is an
adjective.
•  She needs to lose oodles of weight. (NOT She needs to loose oodles of
weight.)
• This shirt is loose for me. (NOT This shirt is lose for me.)

76. Many/much and plenty of/a lot of
The expressions a lot of, plenty of and a great deal of are preferred in
affirmative clauses. In questions and negatives, we usually use much or many.
Compare:
•  I have a lot of work to do. (NOT I have much work to do.)
•  Do you have much work to do? (More natural than ‘Do you have a lot of
work to do?’) Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 34
•  No, I don’t have much work to do. (More natural than ‘No, I don’t have a lot
of work to do’)
• Plenty of people want to buy cars.
•  Are there many people who want cars?
•  Yes, but there aren’t many people who can afford them. (NOT There aren’t
plenty of people who can afford them.)
Many is occasionally used in the affirmative, but much is almost never used in that
way. The expressions a lot of, plenty of and a great deal of are almost never
used in the negative, but they are occasionally used in questions.

77. May and can
Can expresses ability.
•  She can speak English.
•  He can play the piano.
• Can you speak Hindi?
Can is also used in the sense of may to give permission, though may is more
correct.
•  You can take one of those books. OR You may take one of those books.
•  You can go now. OR You may go now.
Nowadays, can is also being increasingly used to ask permission.
•  ‘Can I come in, Sir?’

78. Maybe and perhaps
These two words mean the same. Maybe is more common in an informal style.
•  Maybe/perhaps he will come.
Perhaps is often pronounced ‘praps’ by British people. In American English,
perhaps is rather formal.

79. Much and many Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 35
Much is used with singular nouns. Many is used with plural nouns.
•  There aren’t many people who can afford cars.
•  Have you got much work to do?
Much and many are mostly used in questions and negative sentences. They are
unusual in affirmative clauses except after words like as, so and too.
•  She has got lots of friends. (More natural than ‘She has got many friends.’)

80. Neither, nor and not...either
Negative additions to negative remarks are made with nor/neither + auxiliary
verb + subject
•  Incorrect: 'I can't swim.' 'I also can't'
•  Correct: 'I can't swim.' 'Neither/nor can I.'
•  Incorrect: John didn't come, and Peter didn't too.
•  Correct: John didn't come, neither/nor did Peter.
Not either means the same as neither and nor. It is preceded by subject +
auxiliary verb.
•  Incorrect: 'I can't swim.' 'I also can't.'
•  Correct: 'I can't swim.' 'I can't either.'

81. Nominative and objective case
Pronouns that are used as subjects of verbs are: I, he, she, we, they and you
•  Neither Alice nor I like the opera. (NOT Neither Alice nor me like the opera.
Here the pronouns Alice and I are part of the subject.)
Pronouns that are used as objects of verbs or prepositions are: me, him, her, us,
them and you. Note that you does not change its form.
•  I tackled him. (NOT I tackled he. Here him is the object of the verb tackled.)
•  She sat above me. (NOT She sat above I. Here me is the object of the
preposition above.)
•  Between you and me there are few secrets. (NOT Between you and I there
are few secrets. Here the pronouns you and me are the objects of the
preposition between.) Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 36
•  There are no problems between him and her. (NOT There are no problems
between he and she.)
•  Let you and me do it. (NOT Let you and I do it. Here you and me are the
objects of the verb let.)
•  He has given great trouble to my father and me. (NOT He has given great
trouble to my father and I. Here my father and I are the objects of the
preposition to.)
Grammarians formerly used to recommend that a pronoun used as the complement
of the verb be (is/am/are/was/were), should be in the nominative (subject) form.
Today the use of the nominative form in such cases is considered extremely formal
and over-correct. Instead, we use the objective form.
•  It is me. (More natural than It is I.)
•  That was him. (More natural than That was he.)

82. No sooner ...than
It is wrong to use when instead of than in these sentences. If no sooner begins
the sentence, the auxiliary did or had must come immediately after it.
•  Incorrect: No sooner had she read the telegram when she fainted.
•  Correct: No sooner had she read the telegram than she fainted.
• Incorrect: No sooner I heard the shot than I rushed to the spot.
•  Correct: No sooner did I hear the shot than I rushed to the spot.

83. Nouns that do not have a singular form
Some nouns do not have a singular form. Examples are: oats, cattle, pants,
scissors, tongs, shears, trousers, binoculars, shorts and tweezers. We cannot say a
pants or a cattle.
•  The tongs were by the fireplace. (NOT The tong was by the fireplace.)
•  Tweezers are useful when handling stamps. (NOT A tweezer is useful when
handling stamps.)
The singular aspect of the word is usually indicated by using 'a pair of'.
Compare:
•  The scissors are in the drawer. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 37
•  A pair of scissors is in the drawer.
•  The garden shears were used to clip the hedge.
•  A pair of garden shears was used to clip the hedge.
• Trousers were hanging in the cupboard.
• A pair of trousers was hanging in the cupboard.

84. Nouns with no plural forms
Some nouns do not have a plural form. Examples are: scenery, furniture, wheat,
dust, silverware, information, news, luggage, bread, advice, chess, chewing gum,
equipment, grass, permission, publicity, rubbish, traffic etc.
•  Switzerland is known for its scenery. (NOT Switzerland is known for its
sceneries.)
•  We bought some furniture yesterday. (NOT We bought some furnitures
yesterday.)
•  Have you received any information? (NOT Have you received any
informations?)
•  I packed my luggage. (NOT I packed my luggages.)
• There are no loaves in this shop. (NOT There are no breads in this shop.)
Nouns that do not have a plural form are usually treated as uncountable nouns.
Most uncountable nouns have countable equivalents.
Advice (uncountable) - a piece of advice (countable)
Bread (uncountable) - a piece of bread / a loaf / a roll
Equipment - a piece of equipment / a tool
Baggage - a piece of baggage
Furniture - a piece of furniture / an article of furniture
Grass - a blade of grass
Information - a piece of information
Lightning - a flash of lightning
Luck - a bit of luck / a stroke of luck
News - a piece of news Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 38
Poetry - a poem
Travel - a journey / a trip
Work - a piece of work / a job
•  We bought a piece of furniture yesterday. (NOT We bought a furniture
yesterday.)
•  We heard a piece of news. (NOT We heard a news.)
•  I need a piece of equipment to fix this. OR I need a tool to fix this. (NOT I
need an equipment to fix this.)
•  I am learning a new poem. (NOT I am learning a new poetry.)
• He gave me some advice. OR He gave me a piece of advice. (NOT He
gave me an advice.)

85. Nouns with identical singular and plural forms
Some nouns have identical singular and plural forms. Examples are: sheep and
deer.
•  This deer is hungry.
•  These deer are hungry.

86. Numbers
Write the numbers of kings and queens in Roman characters.
•  Elizabeth II
•  King George VI
Write ordinal numbers (first, second, third etc.) up to twelfth in words except in
dates.
• Incorrect: He came a 3rd time.
•  Correct: He came a third time.
Write dates thus, 'May 12th' or '12th May' and not thus, 'the 12th of May' or 'the
twelfth of May'.
Write cardinal numbers up to twelve in words, except when telling the time. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 39
Write cardinal and ordinal numbers above twelve and twelfth in either words or
figures as seems in each case the more convenient.
87. On and in
Use on when the meaning is clearly 'on top of'. Example: 'on a table'. Use in when
'on top of' is not appropriate.
•  Incorrect: He rides in a cycle.
•  Correct: He rides on a cycle.
•  Incorrect: He rides on a car.
•  Correct: He rides in a car.
•  Incorrect: He sat on a tree.
•  Correct: He sat in a tree.

88. Only
The word only should be written in front of and next to the word or phrase it
modifies.
Compare:
•  Only John may play in the garden. (= John and nobody else may play in the
garden.)
•  John may play only in the garden. (= John may play nowhere else.)
•  John may only play in the garden. (= John may play - but do nothing else -
in the garden.)

89. On time and in time
•  Incorrect: The meeting must start exactly in time.
•  Correct: The meeting must start exactly on time.
On time = at the planned time; neither late nor early
In time = before the last moment; with enough time to spare

90. On the whole and the whole of Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 40
On the whole is used to sum up your opinion of something which is good and bad
in parts. For instance, you may say, 'The script of the film was bad, but the story
was excellent. On the whole I enjoyed it.'
•  Incorrect: It is a very good film. I liked it on the whole.
•  Correct: It is a very good film. I liked the whole of it.

91. Participles
•  Incorrect: Having bitten the postman, the farmer decided to shoot the dog.
•  Correct: The dog having bitten the postman, the farmer decided to shoot
it.
Here the first sentence means that it was the farmer who bit the postman and not
the dog.
The participle is a verb-adjective. It should be related to a proper subject of
reference. If the subject is lacking or if a wrong subject is used, the whole sentence
will be wrong.
•  Incorrect: Being a rainy day, we didn't go out.
•  Correct: It being a rainy day, we didn't go out.
•  Incorrect: Being too costly for him, he could not buy the watch.
•  Correct: The watch being too costly for him, he could not buy it.

92. Positive or comparative?
•  Incorrect: He is becoming strong.
•  Correct: He is becoming stronger.
•  Incorrect: She is getting young.
•  Correct: She is getting younger.
The sentence 'He is becoming strong' is of course correct English, but the English
language has a special fondness for the comparative adjective, instead of a positive
adjective, when growth or change is implied in a sentence. For example when we
are talking of a boy's progress in class, we often say 'He is working better now'
thinking of a time past when he worked less.
                                 Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 41
93. Past perfect tense
•  Incorrect: He said that his father died last year.
•  Correct: He said that his father had died last year.
•  Incorrect: The patient died before the doctor arrived.
•  Correct: The patient had died before the doctor arrived.
• Incorrect: The train left before we reached the station.
•  Correct: The train had left before we reached the station.
The past perfect tense should be used when the time of one past tense verb is
more past than that of another.

94. Possessive case
The use of the possessive case should be confined to the following:
1) Names of living beings and personified objects.
Examples are: the minister's bodyguards, the lion's mane, the girl's mother,
nature's laws, fortune's favorites etc.
2) A few stereotyped phrases:
Examples are:
•  The boat's crew
• At his fingers' ends
•  For goodness' sake
•  For conscience's sake
3) Nouns denoting space or time
Examples are:
• A day's work
•  A hand's breadth
•  In a year's time

95. Prepositions
We do not use prepositions before a number of common expressions beginning
next, last, this, that, one, every, each, some, any, all etc. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 42
•  Incorrect: See you on next Sunday.
•  Correct: See you next Sunday.
•  Incorrect: Come on any day you like.
•  Correct: Come any day you like.
•  Incorrect: The party lasted for all night.
•  Correct: The party lasted all night.

96. Present perfect tense
The present perfect is a present tense. So when you use the present perfect
tense, the action cannot be placed at a point of time in the past. However, a period
of time extending up to the time of speaking can be mentioned - for two hours, for
three years, in the last two years etc. Adverbs like just, recently, as yet, ever,
never, already, today, this morning etc., may also be used.
•  Incorrect: I have seen him yesterday.
•  Correct: I saw him yesterday.
•  Incorrect: We have lived here till 2004.
•  Correct: We lived here till 2004.

•  Incorrect: 'Where is John?' 'He has been to Sydney.'
•  Correct: 'Where is John?' 'He has gone to Sydney.'
'He has been to Sydney' means that sometime in the past he went Sydney and
came back. So he knows Sydney; he is not a stranger to that city.
'He has gone to Sydney' means that he is still in Sydney; he hasn't come back yet.

97. Price and Prize
The price is what you pay when you buy something. A prize is what you are given
if you win a competition.
•  Incorrect: What is the prize of that watch?
•  Correct: What is the price of that watch?
• Incorrect: The boy was given a price.
•  Correct: The boy was given a prize.
 Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 43
98. Pronouns
A pronoun used as subject should not be separated from its verb if possible.
•  Incorrect: I with some friends went for a walk.
•  Correct: I went for a walk with some friends.
Agreement with antecedent in number, gender and person
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person.
•  All passengers were asked to show their tickets. (Here the pronoun ‘their’
agrees with its antecedent passengers in number, gender and person.)
•  Each girl gave her own version of the story. (Here the pronoun ‘her’ agrees
with its antecedent girl in number, gender and person.)
•  Every man must bear his own burden.

99. Say and tell
The verb tell is followed by an indirect object without to.
•  Incorrect: Tell to me what happened.
•  Correct: Tell me what happened.
•  Incorrect: John told to me about it.
•  Correct: John told me about it.
When used with a that-clause, tell takes an indirect object. Say is used without
an indirect object.
•  Incorrect: She told that she would come.
• Correct: She told me that she would come.
•  Correct: She said that she would come.

100. Scarcely...when
It is wrong to use than instead of when in these sentences.
•  Incorrect: Scarcely had I reached the station than the train steamed out.
•  Correct: Scarcely had I reached the station when the train steamed out.
When scarcely begins the sentence, the auxiliary had must come immediately
after it. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 44
•  Incorrect: Scarcely I had solved one problem when another cropped up.
•  Correct: Scarcely had I solved one problem when another cropped up.
•  Correct: I had scarcely solved one problem when another cropped up.

101. Search and search for
•  Incorrect: When we searched it we found it.
•  Correct: When we searched for it we found it.
•  Incorrect: I searched him.
•  Correct: I searched for him.
'I searched him' is only correct when it means 'I looked in his pockets' or something
similar.

102. Sincerely
•  Incorrect: Your sincerely...
• Incorrect: Your's sincerely
•  Correct: Yours sincerely

103. Singular and plural nouns
The pronouns another, anything, each, everyone, everybody, anyone,
someone, somebody, no one, none, much, person, either and neither are
singular and should be followed by singular verbs. The pronouns all, some,
most, many and people are plural and should be followed by plural verbs.
•  Incorrect: Every people know this.
•  Correct: Every man / everyone knows this.
•  Incorrect: Everyone in the class have handed in work.
•  Correct: Everyone in the class has handed in work.
•  Incorrect: Neither of the boys are correct.
•  Correct: Neither of the boys is correct.
• Incorrect: Each of the boys were given a prize yesterday.
•  Correct: Each of the boys was given a prize yesterday.

104. Subordinate clause Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 45
•  Incorrect: I will call you when the dinner will be ready.
•  Correct: I will call you when the dinner is ready.
•  Incorrect: They will come if you will invite them.
•  Correct: They will come if you invite them.
When the verb in the main clause is in the future tense, the verb in the subordinate
clause should be in the present and not in the future.

105. Suggest
The verb suggest is used with a that-clause or a gerund (-ing form). It cannot
be used with a to-infinitive.
•  Incorrect: She suggested to consult a doctor.
•  Correct: She suggested consulting a doctor.
•  Correct: She suggested that I (should) consult a doctor.

106. Than and as
Object pronouns (me, him, her etc) can be used after as and than, especially in
an informal style.
•  She is taller than me.
•  He earns as much as her.
•  She doesn't sing as well as him.
In a formal style, we prefer subject + verb after as and than
•  She is taller than I am.
•  He earns as much as she does.
•  She doesn't sing as well as I do.
Note that a subject form without a verb (e.g. than I) is unusual in this structure in
modern English.
•  He ran as fast as me. OR He ran as fast as I did. (More natural than ‘He ran
as fast as I’.)

107. Thank you and please Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 46
•  Incorrect: 'I have a bad headache.' 'Please?
•  Correct: 'I have a bad headache.' 'I beg your pardon.'
To ask people what they have said, we use 'I beg your pardon' (formal) or 'sorry'
(informal). ‘Please' cannot be used with this meaning.
•  Incorrect: 'Have you got a pen I could use?' 'Yes, please.'
• Correct: 'Have you got a pen I could use?' 'Yes, here you are.'
We do not use please when we give things to people.
•  Incorrect: 'Thanks a lot!' 'Please'
• Correct: 'Thanks a lot!' 'That's OK'
Please is not used as a reply to 'thanks/thank you'. If a reply is necessary, we may
say 'Not at all' (rather formal), 'You are welcome', 'Don't mention it', 'That's all
right' or 'That's OK' (very informal).
•  Incorrect: 'Will you have some coffee?' 'No, please.'
•  Correct: 'Will you have some coffee?' 'Yes, please.'
•  Correct: 'Will you have some coffee?' 'No, thank you.'
'No, please' is always wrong. 'Yes, please' and 'No, thank you' are the polite
replies when accepting and declining an offer.

108. Told and asked
•  Incorrect: I asked my servant to bring water.
•  Correct: I told my servant to bring water.
•  Incorrect: I told the teacher to excuse me.
• Correct: I asked the teacher to excuse me.
Use 'I told him to...' only towards a person to whom you have a right to give an
order. Use 'I asked him to...' towards a person of whom you can or want to make
a request only.

109. Too and very
•  Incorrect: The story is too interesting.
•  Correct: The story is very interesting. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 47
Too means 'more than it ought to be'. It has a negative meaning. It is usually
followed by to or for. Too should not be used in the general sense of very which
has a positive meaning.
•  He is too fat.
•  It is too hot to go out.

110. Transitive verbs
•  Incorrect: Here is my cup; please fill.
•  Correct: Here is my cup; please fill it.
•  Incorrect: I enjoyed when I went to Paris.
•  Correct: I enjoyed myself when I went to Paris.
All transitive verbs (e.g. fill, break, take and bring) must have an expressed object.
Some transitive verbs (e.g. give and lend) must have two objects.
•  Incorrect: I asked for my book, but he didn't give me.
•  Correct: I asked for my book, but he didn't give it to me. (Here the
pronouns it and me are the objects of the verb give.)

111. Two words or one
The following are written as one word:
Nowadays, somehow, anyhow, everybody, into, moreover, cannot, together, today,
sometimes, everyone, afterwards, everywhere, nobody, meanwhile, newspaper,
outside, already, anything, anyone
The following are written as two words:
All right, at once, some time, at least, no one, on to

112. Unless and if
Unless means ‘if not’ and, therefore, it is superfluous to introduce another not into
the following clause.
•  Incorrect: Unless you do not give the keys of the safe you will be shot.
•  Correct: Unless you give the keys of the safe, you will be shot. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 48
•  Correct: If you do not give the keys of the safe, you will be shot.

113. Verbs
The verbs enjoy, avoid, miss, postpone and suggest should be used with a
gerund, and not an infinitive.

•  Incorrect: She enjoys to sing.
•  Correct: She enjoys singing.
• Incorrect: She avoids to meet people.
•  Correct: She avoids meeting people.
•  Incorrect: Mother suggested to consult a doctor.
•  Correct: Mother suggested consulting a doctor.

114. -ward and –wards
•  Incorrect: You can’t make a forwards pass in rugby.
•  Correct: You can’t make a forward pass in rugby.
The words backward(s), forward(s), upward(s), northward(s) etc., do not
have the –s when they are used as adjectives. When these words are adverbs,
they can be used with or without –s.

115. Well and Good
•  Incorrect: He speaks English good.
• Correct: He speaks English well.
•  Incorrect: She speaks well English.
• Correct: She speaks good English.
Well is an adverb. Good is an adjective. Adverbs are used to modify verbs.
Adjectives are used to modify nouns. In the sentence ‘He speaks English well’, the
adverb well modifies the verb speaks. Similarly, in the sentence ‘She speaks good
English’, the adjective good modifies the noun English.
•  Incorrect: She speaks well English.
•  Correct: She speaks English well. Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 49
Adverbs cannot usually go between the verb and the object.

116. Why not + infinitive
Read the following sentence:
Why not arrange a party in his honor?
This means ‘Why should we not arrange a party in his honor?’ It is a way of
suggesting something for other people’s consideration and acceptance.
•  Incorrect: Why not you buy now and pay later?
•  Correct: Why not buy now and pay later?
•  Incorrect: Why not we dismiss the fellow?
•  Correct: Why not dismiss the fellow?
This is a very common error which should be carefully avoided. No noun or pronoun
should come after why not.

117. Whether and If
•  Incorrect: We haven’t settled the question of if we should move to a new
house.
•  Correct: We haven’t settled the question of whether we should move to a
new house.
Only whether is possible after a preposition.
•  Incorrect: They can’t decide if to wait or leave.
•  Correct: They can’t decide whether to wait or leave.
Only whether can be used before to-infinitives.

118. Whose and who’s
Whose is a possessive word. It is used in questions and relative clauses. Who’s is
the contraction of who is or who has.
•  Incorrect: Who’s is this coat?
•  Correct: Whose is this coat? Perfect Your Sentences                                                                                                              Page 50
•  Incorrect: Whose is that over there?
•  Correct: Who’s that over there?

119. Will or shall?
The distinctions between will and shall are now strictly observed only by precise
speakers. Shall is becoming less common especially with the second and third
person pronouns. With first person pronouns, however, shall is still being used to
indicate the simple future.
In conversation people generally use the shortened form ’ll.
•  We’ll have a party tomorrow.
•  I think I’ll send him a letter.
In these sentences, according to strict grammatical rules, one has to use shall. But
’ll may be the contraction of either shall or will. However, research has shown that
most people consider ’ll to be a contraction of will, which proves that in actual
usage will has been replacing shall.
Instead of using shall with second and third person pronouns to express a
command, promise, threat or determination, people often use other verbs and
forms of expression.
For example, instead of saying ‘You shall go at once’, people often say:
•  You will have to go at once.
•  You are to go at once.
•  You must go at once.

120. Yes and No
•  Incorrect: ‘Aren’t you going out?’ ‘Yes, I’m not.’
• Correct: ‘No, I’m not.’
• Correct: ‘Yes, I’m.’
Y